Rapid growth of distributed energy storage systems in recent years reflects the global need to store power
from renewable energy sources and to regulate electrical systems1–3. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the most
widely used type of electrochemical energy storage, as they offer high energy and power density compared
to other battery technologies4. However, electrochemical energy storage and the use and disposal of LIBs
involves inherent risks, such as thermal runaway5 which can lead to the release of potentially toxic compounds
from battery materials6, and localized deposition of battery-associated metals in adjacent ecosystems7, with,
potentially, long-term implications for terrestrial, aquatic, and human health.
Establishing robust environmental baselines in areas surrounding energy storage systems and achieving
adequate spatial and temporal coverage to identify contamination after emergency release are both logistically
difficult and often cost-prohibitive. In this context, portable and cost-effective technology such as X-ray
fluorescence (FpXRF) offers a means of collecting high-density data, serving as a valuable complement to
traditional laboratory-based analytical methods.
On 16 January 2025, a large fire engulfed the largest lithium-
